The Kanheri Caves, nestled outside the western suburbs of Mumbai, feature an intriguing sculpture of an eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara, in which the bodhisattva is seen attending a seated Buddha. Notably, this unique portrayal of the icon in a polycephalous form is a feature that, while more commonly seen in later Buddhist art outside of East and Southeast Asia, is not well-documented within the Indian subcontinent. The allure of the Ekadasamukha Avalokitesvara at Kanheri lies not only in its location but also in its role as a testament to the evolving representation of the bodhisattva figure within the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon and the embodiment of the bodhisattva ideals through its visual symbolism.
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL
The journey of Buddhist philosophy underwent a transformative shift with the Buddha’s initial teachings, where he expounded on the four noble truths addressing suffering, its origins, cessation, and the path to Nirvana. During this phase, the arhat, representing the perfected individual seeking liberation, became the primary focus. However, in a pivotal second sermon, the Buddha introduced a groundbreaking idea that challenged the existence of an inherent self, emphasising the interconnectedness and causality of all things. This revolutionary shift rendered the conventional notion of the arhat obsolete for some, giving rise to a new paradigm—the bodhisattva.
Furthermore, the concept of the bodhisattva formed its foundation in the axiom of Buddha’s possession of dual bodies: the Gross Body or Rupakaya (subject to change) and the Body of Essence or Dharmakaya (pure and eternal). Anchored in the belief in the everlasting nature of Dharma, the theory surrounding past and future Buddhas led to the logical inference that the future Buddha must actively engage in selfless deeds, mirroring Sakyamuni’s altruistic actions before his enlightenment. While traditionalists adhered to the belief in a singular bodhisattva, Maitreya, the Mahayana Buddhists diverged, asserting that as there would always be Buddhas on earth, there must also be bodhisattvas, “the all-compassionate beings who live for the good of others and through their altruistic acts progress to their attainment of final release” (Chutiwongs 13).
In this transformative journey, universal compassion (Mahakaruna) emerged as a paramount attribute in the Mahayana Bodhisattva, finding its profound manifestation in Avalokitesvara, who steadfastly rejects personal salvation until all beings achieve theirs. Serving as the vigilant embodiment of compassion, Avalokitesvara not only stands as the ideal at the pinnacle of Mahayana Buddhism but also emerges as the central figure in the pantheon. The intricate evolution of this deity reflects the dynamic and compassionate ethos that defines Mahayana Buddhism.
MAKING OF THE AVALOKITESVARA IMAGE
The term Avalokitesvara is a combination of two words, “Isvara (Lord or Sovereign)and of Avalokita which means he who looks down with compassion” (Conze 147). With its conceptual roots tracing back to the 3rd century BC, a reference in the text Mahavastu Avadana, describes a Bhagavan who embodies the form of a bodhisattva and is tasked with overseeing the welfare and happiness of the people. However, the pinnacle of the worship of Avalokitesvara had not occurred before the 6th century AD. Buddhism and Brahmanism flourished alongside each other over the centuries, often enjoying support from the same royal patrons. Their coexistence led to mutual influence, drawing them into closer alignment than ever before during this period. In detailing the evolution of Avalokitesvara in Indian art, Chutiwongs underscores the transition from traditional Buddha representations to tangible forms of worship embodied in bodhisattva figures. These figures replaced earlier representations of Buddha as the sole central figure, when it became “an absolute necessity for a new method of popular propagation” to rival the doctrine of “hinduism” with its “vital, almighty and accessible gods” (Chutiwongs 13). Conze outlines the evolutionary trajectory of Avalokitesvara in Indian Buddhism through three distinct phases. Initially, Avalokitesvara is integrated into the Buddhist Trinity alongside Amitabha and Mahasthamaprapta. Avalokitesvara, now assimilated into Buddhism, emerges as a prominent bodhisattva celebrated for miraculous abilities in the first stage. Subsequently, during the second stage, the figure acquires cosmic attributes reminiscent of the Hindu deity Brahma. In the final stage, Avalokitesvara transforms into a tantric figure, wielding magical powers through mantras and adopting characteristics evocative of Shiva. The Avalokitesvara figure at Kanheri, characterised by its numerous heads, appears reminiscent of Brahma, while the tilt towards asceticism, reflected in its simple clothing and icons like prayer beads, alludes to Shiva. This artistic manifestation is suggestive of an evolution occurring between the final two stages in the development of the Avalokitesvara figure.
EKADASAMUKHA AVALOKITESHVARA AT KANHERI
Spanning from the 2nd century AD to 10th century AD, Kanheri’s cultural vibrancy persisted through the reigns of diverse dynasties, including the Satavahanas, Traikurakas, Rastrakutas, and the Silaharasas. The fifth century saw a revival of Mahayana activities at Kanheri, as evident through the multitude of inscriptions deciphered there and sparked an increased artistic focus on Avalokitesvara, making the bodhisattva a prominent and recurrent subject of representation. Moreover, advantageous positioning along maritime and inland trade routes transformed the Kanheri caves into a haven for traders and monks alike while cultivating a lively and dynamic community.
Positioned at the right side of the entrance to Cave 41, the eleven-headed Avalokitesvara immediately captivates the observer’s attention. The high-relief panel includes a sizeable seated Buddha at the centre, our subject on the right, and a chauri bearing figureto the left. The Avalokitesvara sculpture presents a set of four arms, with only the front arms remaining visible. The right hand, adorned with a rosary, is posed in an abhayamudra, while the left arm holds a lotus with an extended stalk. The figure’s face bears a serene expression, suggesting a meditative state. Adorned with a necklace, the upper half of the body is draped in a cloth, while the lower half is attired in what appears to be a dhoti.
Huntington suggest that Avalokitesvara’s eleven heads symbolise the ‘Dasabhumikas’ or the ten stages of achievement of the bodhisattva, culminating in the ultimate attainment of Buddha-hood. In this artistic and literary context, the ten bodhisattva heads beneath a single head of the Buddha convey the spiritual progression of the bodhisattva on the path to Buddha-hood. These ten stages or bhumis are as follows: “the stage of joy (paramudita), the stage of purity (vimala), the stage of the emission of light (prabhakari), the stage of glowing (archishmati), the stage of overcoming final illusions (sudurjaya), the stage of the sign of supreme wisdom (abhimukhi), the stage of progression (duramgama), the stage of immobility (achala), the stage of the all-penetrating wisdom (sadhumati) and the stage of the ‘Cloud of Teaching’ (dharmamegha)” (The Seeker’s Glossary of Buddhism 759). The intriguing connection between Dasbali Buddha and the sculpture adds further to its fascination. The sculpture skilfully captures the essence of the Dasbali form by incorporating ten heads symbolising the ten powers of the Buddha. These ten powers are laid out in the Majjihimanikaya text as “Knowledge of correct and faulty conclusions (Sthãnãsthãnabalam), Result of one’s actions (KarmavipãkaSanabalam), Knowledge of everything under all circumstances (Sabbatthagãminipatipadã), Diversity of specific experiences (Nãnãdhãtunanabalam), Diversity of disposition (Nãnãdhimuktinanabalam), Knowledge of meditation with its different stages (Sarvadhyãnavimoksa Samãdhinanabalam), Knowledge of one’s former state of existence (Purvãnusmrti-ñanabalam), Knowledge of what goes on in the senses and intentions of others (Indriyaparã-parananabalam), Knowledge of thoughts (City ut patti ñanabalam) and Freedom from depravities ( Ãsavakhayananabalam)”. Meanwhile, the four arms represent the four qualities of Buddha: “Eminent Qualities (Asabhathana), Confidence (Abhaya), Highest Knowledge (Vesarajja) and Tranquility (Khema)” (Gokhale 375).
According to Chutiwongs, the Aksamala in the depiction of Avalokitesvara serves to underscore his role as a profound teacher and the possessor of universal knowledge, aligning him with the stature of the God Brahma. Simultaneously, the Abhayamudra, a gesture of reassurance, extends protection to all devotees. The interpretation of the right arm at the back, speculatively thought to hold a water vessel, has been a subject of scholarly debate. There is a clear distinction between the ‘Amrta-kalasa,’ an ambrosia flask reserved for deities symbolising the “nectar of immortality,” and the water flask associated with ascetics, known as the katmandalu or kundika. The lotus, a symbol integral to Avalokitesvara, encapsulates the very essence of this bodhisattva. Coomaraswamy considers the lotus to be a metaphor of purity, because “growing in the mud, it betrays no trace of its origin, nor is the flower or leaf wetted by the water it rests upon, and such also is the truly wise man, who lives in the world, but is not of it”. He further suggests an intriguing reversal of this metaphor, likening the self or Atman to a drop of water on a lotus leaf—present on the surface but not adhering to it (Coomaraswamy 21). This dual perspective illuminates the relationship between Avalokitesvara, purity, and the wisdom inherent in navigating worldly existence without being bound by it.
CONCLUSION
The Kanheri Caves stand as a testament to Mahayana Buddhism’s evolution and its artistic expressions in India. The unique representation of the eleven-headed Avalokitesvara found here reflects the dynamic transformation of the bodhisattva ideal within the Buddhist pantheon. While the figure of Avalokitesvara embodies the unfolding and development of the bodhisattva ideal, the Ekadasamukha Avalokitesvara, characterised by its symbolic heads and multiple arms, stands as a visual ode to the profound teachings and compassionate ethos inherent in Mahayana Buddhism.
References
Chutiwongs, N. The Iconography of Avalokitesvara in Mainland South East Asia. New Delhi:Indira Gandhi National Centre of the Arts, 2002.
Conze, E. Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1951.
Coomaraswamy, A. Elements of Buddhist Iconography. Harvard University Press, 1935.
Fergusson, J. The Cave Temples of India. London: Allen, 1880
Gokhale, Shobhana. “Eleven-Headed Avalokkitesvara from Kanheri.” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol. 68, no. 1/4, 1987, pp. 371–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41693334.
Huntington, S. The Art of Ancient India- Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York: Weatherhill, 1985.
The Seeker’s Glossary of Buddhism. Taipei: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation/Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc, 1998.
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